{"id":12277,"date":"2018-01-23T22:30:27","date_gmt":"2018-01-24T04:30:27","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/?p=12277"},"modified":"2021-05-22T15:31:21","modified_gmt":"2021-05-22T15:31:21","slug":"gehenna-the-history-development-and-usage-of-a-common-image-for-hell","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/2018\/01\/23\/gehenna-the-history-development-and-usage-of-a-common-image-for-hell\/","title":{"rendered":"Gehenna: The History, Development and Usage of a Common Image for Hell"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Of the four words that are often translated \u201chell,\u201d <em>Gehenna<\/em> is the only term used in our Scriptures to describe the final fate of the wicked.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See also: OT Sheol (63x), NT Hades (11x) and Tartarus (1x). It is important to note that all men (wicked and righteous) go to Sheol and Hades upon death, but only the wicked are finally destroyed in Gehenna after the final Resurrection.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u00a0It is used primarily by Jesus in the gospels, once by James and is entirely absent in the writings of Paul. The purpose of this paper is to examine the origin, history and development of <em>Gehenna<\/em> from the Old Testament (OT) to New Testament (NT), comparing the external evidence seen in the historical rabbinical ideas of <em>Gehenna<\/em> with the internal evidence seen in exclusively biblical development.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The following questions will be considered: Is there any biblical or historical warrant for accepting the popular idea of <em>Gehenna<\/em> as a \u201cgarbage dump\u201d just south of Jerusalem, into which the city garbage, and dead bodies of animals and criminals, were thrown to be incinerated? Is <em>Gehenna<\/em> primarily a geographical term giving rise to eschatology cast in spatial language, or is there development that takes us beyond the basic geographical meaning? What this paper hopes to accomplish is to give clarity to the meaning of <em>Gehenna<\/em> in its historical context, which will help us discern its overall usage throughout the NT.<!--more--><\/p>\n<h3>Origin of Gehenna<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The Greek <em>Gehenna<\/em> is a transliteration of the Hebrew phrase <em>Ge-hinnom\u00a0<\/em>which, in a handful of variations throughout the OT, functions primarily as a toponym or \u201cplace-name.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See Josh. 15:8; 18:16; 2 Kgs. 23:10; 2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Neh. 11:30; Jer. 7:31,32; 19:2,6; 32:35.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It is a reference to the valley just outside of Jerusalem \u201cvariously designated in the Hebrew text as the valley \u2018of the sons of Hinnom (2 Kings 23:10), \u2018of the son of Hinnom\u2019 (Jer. 19:2), or simply \u2018of Hinnom\u2019 (Neh. 11:30).\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Kim Papaioannou, <em>The Geography of Hell in the Teaching of Jesus<\/em> (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2013), 3-4.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Geographically, this \u201cvalley was located south-southwest of Jerusalem, and it adjoined the Kidron valley which lay to the south-southeast of the city.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 4.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u00a0It was a \u201cdeep and yawning gorge that never [contained] water,\u201d and a valley that descended \u201cover six hundred feet from its original source.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Edward Fudge, <em>The Fire That Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of Final Punishment, Third Edition<\/em>\u00a0(Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2011), 117.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u00a0In Jerusalem today, it is known as \u201cWadi er-Rababi.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Mois\u0113s Silva, \u201c\u03b3\u03ad\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1,\u201d in New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis (NIDNTTE), eds. Mois\u0113s Silva, vol.1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2014), 548.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em>Ge-hinnom <\/em>is used a total of thirteen times in our Hebrew Bible: five times it serves \u201cas a purely geographical term\u201d (Josh. 15:8; 18:16; Neh. 11:30); narratively, it is used three times when describing \u201chistorical events that happened in the valley and its environs\u201d (2 Kgs. 23:10; 2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Jer 32:35); and the five remaining occurrences are within the Jeremaic text as prophecies \u201cabout a war in the valley in which God will punish the apostates of Judah\u201d (Jer. 7:31,32; 19:2,6).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 4.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u00a0In addition to these, there are several other OT texts in which the language and imagery of judgment in a valley are used without using the actual term <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> (e.g. Jer. 31:40; Isa. 66:24). Aside from the plain geographical usage, each of the above categories will be examined in turn.<\/p>\n<h3>History of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The valley of Hinnom is \u201cthe scene of one of Israel\u2019s most terrible lapses into pagan customs\u201d in the history of Judah.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">William I. Barclay, <em>The New Daily Study Bible: The Gospel of Mark<\/em> (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 268-269.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script>\u00a0During the reign of King Ahaz, fire worship was instituted, and in this valley children were burned alive in the fire as a sacrifice to the god Molech. We read in 2 Chronicles 28:3 that Ahaz \u201cburned sacrifices in the Valley of Ben Hinnom and sacrificed his sons in the fire\u201d (c.f. 2 Kings 16:3).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New International Version (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Two generations later, Manasseh took the throne, and like his grandfather Ahaz, \u201che sacrificed his sons in fire, in the Valley of Ben Hinnom\u201d (33:6; c.f. 2 Kings 21:6). Jeremiah 32:35 tells us that \u201cthey built high places for Baal in the Valley of Ben Hinnom to sacrifice their sons and daughters to Molech,\u201d something the Lord \u201cnever commanded, nor did it enter [His] mind, that they should do such a detestable thing and so make Judah sin.\u201d This demonic act of sacrificial slaughter \u201cfilled Jerusalem from end to end\u201d with the blood of innocent children, and provoked the Lord to such anger that he said, \u201cI am going to bring such disaster on Jerusalem and Judah that the ears of everyone who hears of it will tingle\u201d (2 Kings 21:12, 16).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">That this <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> valley was chosen as the location for such abominable practices is not hard to imagine. According to Lloyd Bailey, \u201can altar [or pillar], in the ancient Semitic world served to connect the realm of the worshipper with that of the deity.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Lloyd R. Bailey, \u201cGehenna: The Topography of Hell,\u201d <em>Biblical Archeologist 49<\/em> (September, 1986): 189-190.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> We see examples of this elsewhere with the story of Jacob and his heavenly dream at Bethel. When Jacob awoke from his dream, he set up a pillar in the place where he lay and proclaimed that \u201cthis is the <em>gate<\/em> to heaven\u201d (Gen. 28:17). \u201cUnderworld deities, on the other hand, could be contacted most efficiently through altars in low places: ravines, crevices, or caves.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 190.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> In fact, Bailey goes on to say that within these Semitic cultures, these \u201caltars were sometimes supplied with pipes so that the sacrificial blood could be channeled to the underworld deities who were thought to dwell just beneath them.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> This is perhaps why we read in places such as Isaiah 57:5-7 condemnations of \u201cthose who sacrificed in valleys and who poured out liquid offerings there to an underworld deity.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">13<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_13\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Manasseh\u2019s grandson Josiah later took the throne, and we read of his sweeping reforms in 2 Kings 23:1-25. He led the nation in her reformation, and \u201cdesecrated Topheth, which was in the Valley of Ben Hinnom, so no one could use it to sacrifice his son or daughter in the fire to Molech\u201d (v.10). Topheth is the \u201cplace of fire\u201d or \u201cfire altar\u201d within the Valley of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> where the child sacrifices took place.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">14<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_14\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 5n8. Kim Papaioannou further suggests that \u201cTopheth (<span lang=\"he\">\u05ea\u05bc\u05b9\u05ab\u05e4\u05b6\u05ea<\/span>) etymologically probably means \u2018hearth,\u2019 \u2018fireplace\u2019 or fire altar.\u2019\u201d See Jeremiah 7:31.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Josiah\u2019s servants also took all the articles made for Ba\u2018al-worship and \u201cburned them outside of Jerusalem in the fields of the Kidron Valley\u201d (v.4) which was adjacent to the Valley of Hinnom.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">15<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_15\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 5.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> By way of desecration, he took human bones and scattered them in the places used for pagan worship (vv.13-14). Papaioannou points out that the \u201ccorpses and the bones of the dead were considered unclean, and this act signified the defilement of the sites so that they would not be used again for any kind of idolatrous worship.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">16<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_16\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 5-6.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The author of 2 Chronicles records the same events but adds that Josiah took the bones of the dead pagan priests and burned them \u201con their altars, and so he purged Judah and Jerusalem\u201d of their sin (34:1-7). An act of desecration was also an act of purification.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">So radical was Josiah\u2019s reformation that it moved the heart of God. \u201cNeither before nor after Josiah was there a king like him who turned to the Lord as he did \u2013 with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his strength\u201d (2 Kgs. 23:25). But nevertheless, the Lord said that because the great sins of Ahaz and Manasseh \u201cprovoked [him] to anger by all that their hands have made, [his] anger will be poured out on [Judah] and will not be quenched\u201d (2 Chr. 34:25). As an act of mercy, however, the Lord promised Josiah that he would not witness the disaster that would befall Judah (2 Kgs. 22:20; 2 Chr. 34:28).<\/p>\n<h3>Development of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Aside from the history already surveyed, the term <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> shows up in Jeremiah where it is portrayed as a place where the apostate Jews will be completely destroyed by God. The first instance is in Jeremiah 7:29-34 where the Lord tells the prophet of his anger that burns against Judah. He is provoked to anger because \u201cthe people of Judah\u2026have built the high places of Topheth in the Valley of Ben Hinnom to burn their sons and daughters in the fire\u201d (7:30-31). Then in language of terror and dread, Jeremiah prophesies the destruction to come: \u201cThe days are coming\u2026when the people will no longer call it Topheth or the Valley of Ben Hinnom, but the Valley of Slaughter, for they will bury the dead in Topheth until there is no more room\u201d (7:32). Their corpses will be left to rot, and \u201cwill become food for the birds of the air and the beasts of the earth\u201d (7:33).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">17<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_17\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Denny Burk, \u201cEternal Conscious Torment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 22-23.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The intense language of slaughter and of exposed dead give us the imagery of a bloody \u201cbattle scene\u2026and one of utmost desolation.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_18');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_18');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">18<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_18\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 7.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_18').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_18', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">This language of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> is picked up again in Jeremiah 19:1-15, and we see a starkly similar picture as we saw in 7:29-34, except with a few additional details. Jeremiah goes out to the <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> valley and prophesies directly towards the \u201ckings of Judah and the people of Jerusalem\u201d (19:3a). Interestingly, he seems to employ language similar to the words in 2 Kings 21:12, where the Lord says, \u201cI am going to bring such disaster on this place that will make the ears of everyone who hears of it tingle\u201d (Jer. 19:3b). Again, the prophecy says that the valley will be called the \u201cValley of Slaughter\u201d (19:6), \u201cwhere those Israelites who offered their children as sacrifice to false deities will themselves be slaughtered.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_19');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_19');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">19<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_19\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">W. R. Domeris, \u201c<span lang=\"he\">\u05d4\u05b6\u05ab\u05e8\u05b6\u05d2<\/span>\u201d in <em>New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis<\/em> (NIDOTTE), eds. William A. VanGemeren, vol.1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997), 1056.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_19').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_19', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> There won\u2019t be enough room to bury the dead, and the unburied will be left as food for the birds and wild animals (19:7). What Jeremiah says different here is that the people will \u201cfall by the sword before their enemies,\u201d which introduces explicit warfare imagery. Additionally, he says the people will turn on each other in cannibalistic fashion \u201cduring the stress of the siege imposed on them\u201d (19:9). By using a visual illustration, as many prophets did to enhance their prophecy, Jeremiah breaks a clay jar in front of the people and says, \u201cThis is what the Lord Almighty says: I will smash this nation and this city just as this potter\u2019s jar is smashed and cannot be repaired\u201d (19:11). Not only is this a desolation of the people of Judah, but of the entire city of Jerusalem (19:12-13). So great is the destruction that will befall the nation that it will be irreparable.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Our third instance, though absent of the term <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em>, is an unmistakable allusion to the same valley. In Jeremiah 31:40, the prophet refers to the \u201cvalley of the dead bodies and the ashes\u201d located near the Kidron Valley, which is right next to the Valley of Ben Hinnom. This Jeremaic reference is different from the prophecies in chapters 7 and 19, for the context here is one of salvation and redemption (31:23-40). It looks ahead to post-exilic times when the Lord brings his people back out of captivity with a \u201cNew Covenant,\u201d and they will rebuild the city of Jerusalem. This is when the \u201cvalley of the dead bodies and the ashes\u201d will become \u201choly to the Lord\u201d (31:40).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">We know from history recorded outside of Scripture and in 2 Kings 25 and 2 Chronicles 36:15-23 that shortly after Josiah\u2019s death, \u201cJerusalem fell to the Babylonians and the people of Judah were taken into exile.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_20');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_20');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">20<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_20\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioanno, 8.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_20').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_20', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Jeremiah the prophet is believed to have been \u201ca younger contemporary of Josiah.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_21');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_21');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">21<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_21\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_21').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_21', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> In fact, it is likely that he would have been involved in Josiah\u2019s sweeping reforms as a young prophet. Based on what we know from Jeremiah 1:1-8, \u201cthe prophet received his prophetic call during Josiah\u2019s thirteenth year, just as the latter had commenced his reform program [2 Chr. 34:3]. Jeremiah was quite young at the time of his call, which could mean that Josiah\u2019s desecrations of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> would have been deeply impressed upon the young prophet.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_22');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_22');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">22<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_22\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 8n22.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_22').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_22', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In light of this background, it is quite likely that the grotesque imagery of a valley filled with dead bodies in Jeremiah 7:29-34 and 19:1-15 would have had a deep impact on the people of Judah. The people had just recently been a part of Josiah\u2019s radical reformation, and saw the valley desecrated with the bones of the dead. It is not hard to imagine why Jeremiah calls it \u201cthe valley of dead bodies\u201d (31:40). His prophecy would have carried much force in the minds of the people, for it was a call to repentance or else they and the entire populace of Jerusalem \u201cwill become as deserted, desecrated and abominable as the valley of Hinnom after the reforms of Josiah\u201d \u2013 a valley of slaughter.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_23');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_23');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">23<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_23\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 9.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_23').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_23', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Historically, it seems clear that Jeremiah prophesied the brutal destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, and this was fulfilled somewhat off-screen from the text. There seems, however, to be elements within Jeremiah\u2019s prophecy that point to \u201ca greater and more complete destruction brought about God himself\u2026that goes beyond anything the Babylonians did.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_24');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_24');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">24<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_24\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_24').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_24', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> There will be no room to bury the dead, \u201cthe land will become desolate,\u201d and the \u201csounds of joy and gladness\u201d and the \u201cvoices of the bride and bridegroom\u201d will cease (Jer. 7:34). Coupled with the repeated use of the phrase, \u201cthe days are coming\u201d (7:32; 19:6; 31:27,31,38), and with the redemptive tone in Jeremiah 31:27-40, these elements may \u201csuggest an eschatological event in the making.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_25');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_25');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">25<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_25\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_25').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_25', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> To be sure, the emphasis is immediate fulfillment in the eyes of Jeremiah, but a future fulfillment may be implied, even if it cannot be proven with certainty.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">By far the clearest allusion to the Valley of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> outside of Jeremiah is Isaiah 66:24, which happens to be the <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> text most alluded to in the teachings of Jesus in the gospels. Contextually, Isaiah 66:1-24 is describing an eschatological battle scene outside of Jerusalem.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_26');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_26');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">26<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_26\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Daniel I. Block, \u201cThe Old Testament on Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 60-61.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_26').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_26', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The Lord protects the righteous within the city while utterly slaying the wicked who rebel against Him, by divine fire and sword. Then Isaiah says that the righteous \u201cwill go out and look upon the <em>dead bodies<\/em>\u201d of the wicked, lying just outside of Jerusalem, where \u201ctheir worm does not die\u201d and the \u201cfire is not quenched\u201d (Isa. 66:24 \u2013 emphasis mine). The image is of \u201ca pile of corpses, victims in battle, ignominiously dumped in a heap and torched.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_27');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_27');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">27<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_27\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Block, 60-61.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_27').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_27', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> Valley is not mentioned in this text, but the imagery has unmistakably strong ties with Jeremiah: a great battle resulting in massive loss of life, where the dead are left unburied and left to the irresistible consumption by scavengers. Yet, another connection can be made to the \u201cValley of Slaughter\u201d in Jeremiah from Isaiah 30:25 where it speaks of \u201cthe salvation of Israel and the destruction of her enemies on the Day of the Lord \u2013 \u2018the day of great slaughter.\u2019\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_28');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_28');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">28<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_28\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Domeris, 1056.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_28').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_28', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">There are other allusions to destruction in a valley within OT texts such as Isaiah 30:33, Ezekiel 39:11-16 and Joel 3:1-21, but in each of these cases (as we saw with Isaiah 66:24), they do not mention <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> by name. \u201cThis can only mean that the word <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> had not yet developed into a byword for the punishment that God would inflict on the wicked in the eschatological future.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_29');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_29');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">29<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_29\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 12.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_29').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_29', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It seems to be the case, then, that <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> in the OT was a term only used in pre-exilic texts. Subsequent to Jeremiah, we do not hear of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> again in the rest of the OT.<\/p>\n<h3>The Silence of <em>Gehenna<\/em><\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Interestingly, the Septuagint \u201cdoes not have <em>Gehenna <\/em>and Josephus mentions neither the term nor the matter.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_30');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_30');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">30<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_30\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Joachim Jeremias, \u201c<span lang=\"gr\">\u03b3\u03ad\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1<\/span>,\u201d in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT), eds. Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich, and Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol.\u00ad1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1964), 657-658.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_30').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_30', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Within the Second Temple literature leading up to the time of Christ, it is questionable that <em>Gehenna<\/em> was ever used as a toponym for final punishment. Papaioannou suggests that the relevant mentions of <em>Gehenna<\/em> in the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are found in the later writings of 4 <em>Ezra<\/em>, 2 <em>Baruch<\/em>, <em>Apocalypse of Abraham<\/em>, and the <em>Sibylline Oracles<\/em>. All of these, he says, \u201care dated after AD 70, toward the end of the [first] century or even later.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_31');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_31');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">31<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_31\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 19.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_31').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_31', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The same can be said of the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud, which are compilations of material written by rabbis from as early as the first century BC until the sixth century AD. In these writings, \u201cthe word <em>Gehenna <\/em>appears well over fifty times,\u201d with a few rabbis being the earliest attributions in the later part of the first century AD.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_32');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_32');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">32<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_32\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 21. Kim lists the Rabbi\u2019s as: Akiba ben Joseph, Johanan ben Zakkai, and the School of Shammai.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_32').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_32', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> But in most cases, \u201cthey are attributed to Rabbis of the third and fourth centuries.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_33');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_33');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">33<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_33\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid. For an excellent survey of later Jewish writings and their influence on the doctrine of final punishment, see Glenn Peoples, \u201cWorms and Fire: The Rabbis or Isaiah?\u201d in <em>Rethinking Hell: Exploring Evangelical Conditionalism<\/em>. August 17, 2012. Accessed December 4, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2012\/08\/worms-and-fire-the-rabbis-or-isaiah\/\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2012\/08\/worms-and-fire-the-rabbis-or-isaiah\/<\/span><\/a>. See also, David Instone-Brewer, \u201cEternal Punishment in First-Century Jewish Thought,\u201d in <em>A Consuming Passion: Essays on Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge<\/em>, eds. Christopher M. Date and Ron Highfield. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_33').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_33', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">There exists a large gap between the <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> of Jeremaic origin and the <em>Gehenna<\/em> of the later first century AD. <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em>, according to Jeremiah, was a valley where the wicked were slaughtered in battle and the dead bodies were left unburied. According to later Jewish writings, <em>Gehenna<\/em> became an eschatological term referring to an other\u2013worldly place, where \u201cthe wicked, sometimes in their bodies, sometimes only as disembodied souls, are sometimes annihilated, but often anguish in fire forever without end.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_34');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_34');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">34<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_34\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 22.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_34').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_34', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> In other words, Jeremiah seems to envision annihilation in <em>Gehenna<\/em> as the fate of the wicked, whereas later Jewish writings show evidence for prolonged or even eternal torment as the punishment in <em>Gehenna.<\/em> It is difficult to reconcile or harmonize these ideas when there is such a large historical gap with no evidence showing \u201ca coherent, gradual development of the theme beginning with Jeremiah and continuing down the centuries.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_35');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_35');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">35<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_35\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 21. Kim goes on to say, \u201cIt simply does not make sense to assume that the tradition developed from the simple battle-language of the Hebrew Scriptures to the otherworldly hell of bodies and\/or, more often, souls of the \u2018Apocrypha\u2019 and \u2018Pseudepigrapha,\u2019 all at once\u201d (p.22).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_35').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_35', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> This is not to dismiss the fact that there were some texts in the intertestamental period, albeit few and in embryonic form, that warn of eternal torment. But they were not in connection with the geographical <em>Gehenna<\/em>. Rather, they appear to have sprung forth from non-Jewish philosophy. Based on the evidence that we have, it seems likely that Jesus, in his teaching on <em>Gehenna<\/em>, continues the <em>Gehenna<\/em> motif of Jeremiah.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_36');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_36');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">36<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_36\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou suggests that \u201cthe first to revive <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> out of its resting place was Jesus who used the term extensively in his preaching\u201d(25).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_36').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_36', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> It is here that we must turn to Jesus and the NT.<\/p>\n<h3>Advent of Gehenna<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Throughout the NT, <em>Gehenna<\/em> is mentioned a total of twelve times, eleven from the lips of Jesus. \u201cTwice he addresses the Pharisees. All else that Jesus says about hell is directed to his own disciples.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_37');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_37');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">37<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_37\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fudge, <em>The Fire that Consumes<\/em>, 286.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_37').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_37', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Within the gospels, Matthew generously refers to it a total of eight times, Mark uses it three times all in the span of five verses in chapter nine, and Luke uses it only once.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_38');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_38');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">38<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_38\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_38').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_38', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The only other occurrence of <em>Gehenna<\/em> is in James 3:6. The unified understanding of <em>Gehenna <\/em>in the NT is that it is the location where the wicked are punished after the final resurrection. Time and space do not permit a detailed exegesis of each of these <em>Gehenna<\/em> texts, but several general observations are in order.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Among the <em>Gehenna<\/em> references in the Gospels, it is important to recognize that there is a unique emphasis on the body. In Matthew 5:22, Jesus draws on the OT context of a murderer receiving a death sentence in court when he speaks of the wicked being \u201cin danger of the fire of Gehenna.\u201d Continuing on, the even more explicit language in Matthew 5:29-30, 18:9, and Mark 9:43-48 speaks of mutilated body parts with <em>Gehenna <\/em>as the context. For example, Mark 9:43 says, \u201cIf your hand causes you to sin, cut it off. It is better for you to enter life maimed than with two hands to go into <em>Gehenna<\/em>.\u201d Jesus repeats this phrase twice when he speaks similarly of feet and eyes (vv.45-46). As a parallel between a partial loss and a total loss, Jesus seems to be pointing out that to enter life mutilated is better than being a dead corpse thrown into <em>Gehenna<\/em>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_39');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_39');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">39<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_39\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">My thanks to William Tanksley, Chris Date, Darryl Klassen and Peter Grice for comments on my original draft of this article, which has helped clarify my thinking on how to articulate what some might refer to as a \u201cescalating parallel.\u201d<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_39').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_39', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> What is more, almost akin to spiritual gangrene, if action is not taken to get rid of sin, it will eventually consume and kill the whole body.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_40');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_40');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">40<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_40\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See Matthew 5:27-30. While Mark emphasizes the \u201ccutting off the hand\u201d (9:43), with no further explanation, Matthew goes further by saying, \u201c\u2026and throw it away\u201d (5:29,30).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_40').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_40', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Thus, it seems a comparison is drawn between the severed limb and the lifeless body in <em>Gehenna<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">A corpse thrown into <em>Gehenna<\/em> is reminiscent of the dead bodies in Jeremiah\u2019s Valley of Slaughter and Isaiah\u2019s scene of massacre. Here we notice that Jesus, a Jewish rabbi immersed in the Hebrew Scriptures (OT), quotes directly from Isaiah 66:24 and by inserting <em>Gehenna<\/em> in his quotation, he brings the imagery of Jeremiah\u2019s Valley of Slaughter (Jer. 7:29-34; 19:1-14) into focus. It is not hard to see how the images complement each other. All of these \u201cdepict [gruesome] battle scenes that result in a devastation of mutilated and <em>dead<\/em> bodies.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_41');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_41');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_41\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">41<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_41\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 22.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_41').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_41', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Additionally, Isaiah\u2019s imagery of the unquenchable fire and undying worm points to the completeness and finality of destruction. By using Scripture to interpret Scripture, it can be pointed out that an unquenchable fire \u201cdoes not mean ever-burning, but irresistible. Because it cannot be thwarted in its intended purpose, or stopped short of accomplishing its goal, \u2018unquenchable\u2019 fire (\u2018irresistible fire\u2019) fully consumes (Ezek. 20:47-48), reduces to nothing (Amos 5:5-6) or burns up what is put into it (Matt. 3:12).\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_42');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_42');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_42\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">42<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_42\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fudge, <em>The Fire that Consumes<\/em>, 77.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_42').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_42', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Similarly, the worms (or maggots) chewing on the flesh of the dead bodies \u201cdo not die, at least not until they finish their consumptive task.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_43');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_43');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_43\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">43<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_43\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Fudge, 76.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_43').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_43', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Luke 12:4-5 continues this focus on the body when Jesus suggests that \u201cwhat is thrown in <em>Gehenna <\/em>[are] the corpses of those whom God has killed [which] remind us of the motif in Isaiah 66:24.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_44');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_44');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_44\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">44<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_44\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 23.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_44').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_44', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Luke\u2019s parallel is Matthew 10:28, which has its difficulties in translation. There the distinction is drawn between the \u201cbody\u201d (<em>s\u014dma<\/em>) and the <em>psuch\u0113<\/em> which is most often translated as \u201csoul.\u201d Given Matthew\u2019s Hebraic background, and the fact that Luke avoids this distinction all together, it is doubtful that Matthew is creating a dichotomy between two separate anthropological entities, that is, the body and the soul. In most cases, <em>psuch\u0113 <\/em>is best understood as \u201clife.\u201d It is likely that Jesus\u2019 emphasis is that God is sovereign \u201cover life and death. Men can kill you, but it is God, the one in whom we hope, who can end you forever, not just killing the body temporarily as men can, but ultimately ending your life.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_45');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_45');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_45\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">45<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_45\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Glenn Peoples, \u201cMatthew 10:28 and dualism: Is the soul Immortal?\u201d in <em>Afterlife. <\/em>July 14, 2013. Accessed December 6, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.afterlife.co.nz\/2013\/theology\/body-and_soul\/matthew-1028-and-dualism-is-the-soul-immortal\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.afterlife.co.nz\/2013\/theology\/body-and_soul\/matthew-1028-and-dualism-is-the-soul-immortal\/<\/span><\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_45').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_45', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">In addition to the emphasis on the body in the gospels is the \u201cgeographical dimension in the development of the <em>Gehenna <\/em>motif.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_46');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_46');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_46\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">46<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_46\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 23.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_46').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_46', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Within the synoptic gospels, Matthew uses <em>Gehenna <\/em>most generously, which is unsurprising given the fact that his synoptic is \u201crecognized as the most Palestinian of the Gospels.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_47');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_47');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_47\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">47<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_47\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid. Even though James mentions <em>Gehenna <\/em>only once, it is well recognized that his audience was Jewish.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_47').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_47', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Not only is <em>Gehenna<\/em> a geographical term (aka: \u201cthe Valley of Hinnom\u201d), it is a thoroughly Jewish term, one that Jews in Jesus\u2019 day would have understood as part of their history. Mark and Luke use the term sparingly, which is explained by their majority Gentile audience. James, like Matthew, was addressing a primarily Jewish readership. When we look beyond the gospels and James, we do not find a reference to the geographical <em>Gehenna <\/em>in any of the other NT books. Understandably, to a Gentile who was unfamiliar with the geography and history of Jerusalem, the teachings of Jesus and the Hebrew Scriptures, the term <em>Gehenna<\/em> would have made very little sense.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_48');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_48');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_48\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">48<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_48\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 23.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_48').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_48', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">This explains the complete absence of <em>Gehenna <\/em>in the writings of Paul. He does not speak of the fate of the wicked in geographical language akin to Jesus or the other apostles. It would not have made sense for him to do so, since he was writing to a mixed audience in Asia Minor who would not have understood such geography.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_49');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_49');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_49\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">49<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_49\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">In an email conversation, Richard Middleton pointed out to me that \u201cdifferent contexts (and conceptual training, etc.) lead different people to use different ideas\/images, etc. to communicate the same basic idea.\u201d<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_49').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_49', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Instead of geography, Paul uses language of teleology. In other words, Paul is interested in the decisive or punctiliar act of destruction as the end (<em>telos<\/em>) of the wicked. For example, in his letter to the Philippians, Paul encourages believers that the persecution they are experiencing is a \u201csign to them of [the persecutors\u2019] destruction,\u201d but for the believer it is a sign of salvation (Phil. 1:28). Later he says that those who live as \u201cenemies of the cross\u201d will find \u201ctheir end (<em>telos<\/em>) is destruction\u201d (Phil. 3:18-19). In contrast to the \u201cvessels of mercy,\u201d Paul talks about \u201cvessels of wrath prepared for destruction\u201d (Rom. 9:22-24). In 2 Thessalonians 1:8-9, he describes what will happen on the Day of the Lord when the wicked will be punished \u201cwith eternal destruction from the presence of the Lord.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_50');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_50');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_50\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">50<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_50\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">See <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/11\/annihilation-in-2-thessalonians-19-part-1-destroyed-by-the-glory-of-his-manifest-presence\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/11\/annihilation-in-2-thessalonians-19-part-1-destroyed-by-the-glory-of-his-manifest-presence<\/span><\/a>; and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/12\/annihilation-in-2-thess-1-9-part-2-separation-or-obliteration\/\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/12\/annihilation-in-2-thess-1-9-part-2-separation-or-obliteration\/<\/span><\/a>. See also Charles L. Quarles, \u201cThe <span lang=\"gr\">\u1f00\u03c0\u1f79<\/span> of 2 Thess. 1:9 and the Nature of Eternal Punishment,\u201d WTJ 59 [1997], 201-211.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_50').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_50', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Paul warns the person \u201cdesiring to be rich\u201d that greed \u201cplunges people into ruin and destruction\u201d (1 Tim. 6:9), and he warns that \u201cthe one who sows according to the flesh will reap destruction\u201d (Gal. 6:8).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_51');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_51');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_51\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">51<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_51\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nicholas Rudolph Quient, \u201cPaul and the Annihilation of Death,\u201d in <em>A Consuming Passion: Essays on Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge<\/em>, eds. Christopher M. Date and Ron Highfield (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015), 99.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_51').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_51', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Other examples could be explored, but as already mentioned, Paul repeatedly uses non-geographical language whenever he speaks of the fate of the wicked.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_52');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_52');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_52\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">52<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_52\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For an excellent study on Paul\u2019s language of destruction as dependent upon the LXX, see Nicholas Rudolph Quient, \u201cDestruction from the Presence of the Lord: Paul\u2019s Intertextual Use of the LXX in 2 Thess. 1:9\u201d (paper presented at the Rethinking Hell Conference in London, UK, 7-8, October 2016), 1-24. See also, Daniel G. Reid, \u201c2 Thessalonians 1:9: \u2018Separated from\u2019 or \u2018Destruction from\u2019 the Presence of the Lord?\u201d (a paper presented at the ETS Pauline Studies Group, in Colorado Springs, CO, 16, November 2001), 1-18.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_52').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_52', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">To sum up the evidence of <em>Gehenna <\/em>language in the NT, it seems clear that Jesus stands much \u201ccloser to the original source of the Gehenna tradition \u2013 Jeremiah \u2013 with [his] strong emphasis on the body,\u201d and that his references to <em>Gehenna<\/em> \u201chave a coherence that reflects a unified source.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_53');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_53');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_53\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">53<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_53\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 24.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_53').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_53', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> In other words, Jesus is very closely tied to the <em>Gehenna <\/em>of Jeremaic origin<em>.<\/em> But, as we move further away from Jesus into the later Jewish writings, we see a tendency to move further away from \u201cthe body towards an interest in disembodied souls,\u201d which reveals a lack of unity on the consensus of <em>Gehenna<\/em>.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_54');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_54');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_54\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">54<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_54\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid.,<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_54').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_54', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<h3>Gehenna as a Garbage Dump?<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Chief among the modern ideas surrounding <em>Gehenna<\/em> is that of a smouldering garbage dump south of Jerusalem where perpetual fires consumed the city waste and the dead bodies of criminals thrown into it. Many prominent scholars appeal to this idea, and often without evidence or explanation.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_55');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_55');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_55\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">55<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_55\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Some examples: N. T. Wright, <em>Matthew For Everyone: Part 1<\/em> (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004), 211-12 (see also his commentaries: Part 2 of Matthew; Mark; Luke; 1<sup>st<\/sup> and 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Corinthians; The Early Christian Letters; and Revelation); Robert A. Morey, <em>Death and the Afterlife<\/em> (Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House, 1984), 87\u201388.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_55').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_55', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> The most common route by which this idea is adopted is from the suggestion that during Josiah\u2019s sweeping reformation when he declared the valley unclean, it \u201cwas subsequently set apart as a place where refuse was discarded and burnt.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_56');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_56');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_56\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">56<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_56\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Larry Dixon, <em>The Other Side of the Good News: Confronting The Contemporary Challenges To Jesus\u2019 Teaching On Hell<\/em> (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1992), 122-123. See also, William V. Crockett, \u201cThe Metaphorical View,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, ed. William Crockett (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1996), 58.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_56').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_56', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> William Barclay suggests that, consequently, \u201cit was a foul, unclean place where loathsome worms bred on the refuse, and which smoked and smouldered at all times like some vast incinerator.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_57');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_57');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_57\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">57<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_57\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Barclay, 268-269.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_57').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_57', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Supposedly, this usage of the valley continued into Jesus\u2019 day where the \u201csight and smell of the place\u201d would have been familiar to the contemporary Jew.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_58');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_58');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_58\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">58<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_58\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Block, 60-61.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_58').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_58', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> John Stackhouse, while questioning this garbage dump motif, says that \u201cgiven Jesus\u2019 description of Gehenna as a place of removal, burning, and maggots, a garbage dump readily came to mind (i.e. Mark 9:43-49).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_59');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_59');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_59\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">59<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_59\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">John Stackhouse, \u201cTerminal Punishment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 63. Other scholars who express hesitance with the garbage dump motif are: R. T. France, \u201c<em>The Gospel of Matthew<\/em>, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007), 202; Robert W. Yarbrough, \u201cJesus on Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 79; Christopher W. Morgan, \u201cBiblical Theology: Three Pictures of Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 146n17; and Denny Burk, \u201cEternal Conscious Torment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 22-23.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_59').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_59', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">However, the whole idea of <em>Gehenna <\/em>as a municipal garbage dump is based on very thin evidence. Among the scholars who question this theory, Francis Chan and Preston Sprinkle are quite helpful in pointing out that \u201cjust because Jesus\u2019 description of hell may have been inspired by the image of a burning garbage dump (if it was), doesn\u2019t mean that He is referring to the actual garbage dump when he uses the word <em>Gehenna.<\/em>\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_60');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_60');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_60\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">60<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_60\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Francis Chan and Preston M. Sprinkle, <em>Erasing Hell: What God Said about Eternity and the Things We Made Up<\/em> (Colorado Springs, CO: David C Cook, 2011), 59.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_60').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_60', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">To suggest that Jesus is referring to an actual garbage dump in geographic terms is to misunderstand the way language works. Chan and Sprinkle illustrate this misunderstanding:<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_61');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_61');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_61\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">61<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_61\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Ibid., 59.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_61').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_61', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<blockquote><p>I\u2019ve often heard people refer to a gridlocked freeway as a parking lot. The statement is inspired by a literal parking lot, but nobody is claiming that people drive to the freeway, stop, lock their cars, and then go about their business. That\u2019s just the way imagery works.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Within linguistic studies, D. A. Carson refers to this as confusing the \u201creferent with the sense.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_62');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_62');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_62\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">62<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_62\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">D. A. Carson, <em>Exegetical Fallacies, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> ed.<\/em> (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1996), 63-64.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_62').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_62', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Papaioannou helpfully points out that the garbage dump motif is in awkward tension with Luke 12:4-5 which draws a contrast between \u201chumans who can kill and then do nothing more [and] God who can kill and then cast into Gehenna. If indeed there was a fire burning in the literal valley of <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em>, the contrast loses its power \u2013 not only God, but humans can also cast into <em>Gehenna<\/em>.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_63');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_63');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_63\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">63<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_63\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Papaioannou, 6n13.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_63').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_63', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Even when we set aside the functionality of languages, G. R. Beasley-Murray says, \u201cThe notion\u2026that the city\u2019s rubbish was burned in this valley, has no further basis than a statement by the Jewish scholar [David] Kimhi (sic) made about A.D. 1200; it is not attested in any ancient source.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_64');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_64');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_64\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">64<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_64\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">G. R. Beasley-Murray,\u00a0<em>Jesus and the Kingdom of God\u00a0<\/em>(Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986), 376-77n.92.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_64').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_64', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> David Kimhi, a medieval rabbi, wrote in his commentary on Psalm 27: \u201cGehenna is a repugnant place, into which filth and cadavers are thrown, and in which fires perpetually burn in order to consume the filth and bones, on which account, by analogy, the judgment of the wicked is called \u2018Gehenna.\u2019\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_65');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_65');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_65\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">65<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_65\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">As cited in Bailey, \u201cGehenna: The Topography of Hell,\u201d 188.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_65').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_65', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Somewhat ironic is the earliest source of this garbage dump allusion when we notice that Kimhi (who was writing from Europe, and not Israel) himself only saw it as an \u201c<em>analogy<\/em>\u201d for \u201cthe judgment of the wicked.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_66');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_66');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_66\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">66<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_66\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Chan and Sprinkle, 60, italics mine.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_66').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_66', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Peter Head is even more terse when he says that, within the primary sources and ancient texts, the evidence for the existence of <em>Gehenna <\/em>as a \u201cfiery rubbish dump in this location\u201d is nonexistent, but \u201cin any case, a thorough investigation would be appreciated.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_67');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_67');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_67\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">67<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_67\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Peter M. Head, &#8220;The Duration of Divine Judgment in the New Testament,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Eschatology in Bible &amp; Theology: Evangelical Essays at the Dawn of a New Millennium<\/em>, eds. Kent E. Brower and Mark W. Elliott (Downers Drove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1997), 223.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_67').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_67', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> Furthermore, as an archeologist, Bailey points out that there is no evidence for <em>Gehenna <\/em>as a garbage dump in the \u201carcheological data from the intertestamental or rabbinic periods.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_68');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_68');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_68\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">68<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_68\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Bailey, 189. See also, \u201cThe Myth of the Burning Garbage Dump of Gehenna,\u201d <em>BiblePlaces.com blog: News and analysis related to biblical geography, history and archeology. <\/em>April 7, 2011. Accessed November 25, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/blog.bibleplaces.com\/2011\/04\/myth-of-burning-garbage-dump-of-gehenna.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/blog.bibleplaces.com\/2011\/04\/myth-of-burning-garbage-dump-of-gehenna.html<\/span><\/a>.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_68').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_68', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> If <em>Gehenna<\/em> was a fiery garbage dump just south of Jerusalem, we would \u201cbe able to dig around and find evidence.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_69');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_69');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_69\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">69<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_69\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Chan and Sprinkle, 59.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_69').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_69', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> But there is none. Gehenna did not become \u201cinfamous as a flaming heap of garbage,\u201d rather, it is an explicit reference to the Jeremaic Valley of Slaughter where God severely judged the nation of Judah.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_70');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_12277_1('footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_70');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_70\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">70<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_70\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Burk, 22-23.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_70').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_12277_1_70', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top right', relative: true, offset: [10, 10], });<\/script> How is it that the majority of the Christian churches have bought into an idea of <em>Gehenna <\/em>that has no evidence earlier than 1200 AD, hundreds and hundreds of years after Jesus\u2019 earthly ministry?<\/p>\n<h3>Conclusi\u00f3n<\/h3>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The toponym <em>Gehenna <\/em>has an unavoidable relationship to the <em>Ge-hinnom <\/em>of Jeremiah where the apostate Jews were utterly slaughtered and left unburied and exposed to the elements and scavengers. Beyond Jeremiah\u2019s usage of <em>Ge-hinnom, <\/em>it does not appear anywhere else in the OT until Jesus incorporates it into his teaching of the fate of the wicked. Jesus seems to continue the <em>Gehenna<\/em> motif of Jeremiah by focusing on the body and bringing in the imagery of Isaiah 66:24, thereby giving a stark image of appalling destruction where the wicked are completely destroyed.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">The questions that need to be wrestled with are: How does the geographic <em>Gehenna <\/em>of Jesus point us to the eschatological fate of the wicked? Does Jesus continue the geographic language as though the <em>location<\/em> of final destruction were important? To be sure, the Jewish hearer would have understood Jesus in a straight forward manner and knew the valley of which Jesus was speaking of. But what is helpful to note is that <em>Gehenna<\/em> can be considered a partial vision, a type, of the fuller judgment anticipated for the whole world, and indeed the entire cosmos. In other words, what is true of the Jewish <em>Gehenna<\/em> in its geographical sense is true of the cosmos when God finally comes to destroy all evil. Locality is always part of a punctiliar act of destruction, but what is the focus of Jesus and Paul, and the other NT writers? It seems to be the case, given their particular contexts and environs from which they wrote, stress is placed on the <em>act<\/em> rather than the <em>location<\/em>of destruction. Thus, Hell is not merely a place one goes to, but most importantly, it is the act of being completely destroyed by God when the offer of life is forever removed from their reach.<\/p>\n<p dir=\"ltr\">\n<p dir=\"ltr\">\n<p dir=\"ltr\" style=\"text-align: center;\">*\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0*\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0*\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0*\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0*\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0*<\/p>\n<p dir=\"ltr\">\n<p dir=\"ltr\">\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"center\"><strong><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Bibliography<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<div style=\"font-size: 10pt;\">\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Bailey, Lloyd R. \u201cGehenna: The Topography of Hell,\u201d <em>Biblical Archeologist<\/em> 49 [1986]: 189. (p.328n.17).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Barclay, William I. <em>The Gospel of Mark<\/em>. The New Daily Study Bible. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001 [orig. ed. 1969].<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Beasley-Murray,\u00a0G. R. <em>Jesus and the Kingdom of God.\u00a0<\/em>Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Block, Daniel I. \u201cThe Old Testament on Hell,\u201d <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents\u00a0<\/em><em>Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Bolen, Todd. \u201cThe Myth of the Burning Garbage Dump of Gehenna,\u201d <em>BiblePlaces.com blog:\u00a0<\/em><em>News and analysis related to biblical geography, history and archeology. <\/em>April 7, 2011. Accessed November 25, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/blog.bibleplaces.com\/2011\/04\/myth-of-burning-garbage-dump-of-gehenna.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blog.bibleplaces.com\/2011\/04\/myth-of-burning-garbage-dump-of-gehenna.html<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Burk, Denny. \u201cEternal Conscious Torment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Carson, D. A. <em>Exegetical Fallacies, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> ed.<\/em> (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1996), 63-64.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Chan, Francis &amp; Preston M. Sprinkle, <em>Erasing Hell: What God Said about Eternity and the\u00a0<\/em><em>Things We Made Up<\/em>. Colorado Springs, CO: David C Cook, 2011.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Crockett, William V. \u201cThe Metaphorical View,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, ed. William Crockett. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1996.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Demler, Ronnie &amp; William Tanksley Jr. \u201cAnnihilation in 2 Thessalonians 1:9 (Part 2): Separation or Obliteration? \u2013 The Present Controversy\u201d in <em>Rethinking Hell<\/em>. December 5, 2016. Accessed December 1, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/12\/annihilation-in-2-thess-1-9-part-2-separation-or-obliteration\/\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/12\/annihilation-in-2-thess-1-9-part-2-separation-or-obliteration\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Dixon, Larry. <em>The Other Side of the Good News: Confronting The Contemporary Challenges To\u00a0<\/em><em>Jesus\u2019 Teaching On Hell.<\/em> Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1992.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Domeris, W. R. \u201c<strong>\u05d4\u05b6\u05ab\u05e8\u05b6\u05d2<\/strong>\u201d in <em>New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis<\/em> (NIDOTTE), ed. William A. VanGemeren, vol.1 Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">France, Richard T. <em>The Gospel of Matthew<\/em>, NICNT. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm.B.Eerdmans, 2007.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Fudge, Edward W. <em>The Fire That Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of\u00a0<\/em><em>Final Punishment, Third Edition<\/em>. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2011.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Grice, Peter. \u201cAnnihilation in 2 Thessalonians 1:9 (Part 1): Destroyed by the Glory of His Manifest Presence\u201d in <em>Rethinking Hell<\/em>. November 14, 2016. Accessed December 1, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/11\/annihilation-in-2-thessalonians-19-part-1-destroyed-by-the-glory-of-his-manifest-presence\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/11\/annihilation-in-2-thessalonians-19-part-1-destroyed-by-the-glory-of-his-manifest-presence<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Head, Peter M. &#8220;The Duration of Divine Judgment in the New Testament,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Eschatology in\u00a0<\/em><em>Bible &amp; Theology: Evangelical Essays at the Dawn of a New Millennium<\/em>, eds. K. E. Brower and Mark W. Elliott. Downers Drove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1997.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Instone-Brewer, David. \u201cEternal Punishment in First-Century Jewish Thought,\u201d in <em>A Consuming\u00a0<\/em><em>Passion: Essays on Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge<\/em>, eds. Christopher M. Date and Ron Highfield. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Jeremias, Joachim. \u201c<span lang=\"gr\">\u03b3\u03ad\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1<\/span>,\u201d in <em>Theological Dictionary of the New Testament<\/em>, ed. Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich, and Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol.1. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1964. (657-58).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Morey, Robert A. <em>Death and the Afterlife<\/em>. Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House, 1984.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Morgan, Christopher W. \u201cBiblical Theology: Three Pictures of Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire:\u00a0<\/em><em>Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Papaioannou, Kim. <em>The Geography of Hell in the Teaching of Jesus<\/em>. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2013.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Peoples, Glenn. \u201cMatthew 10:28 and dualism: Is the soul Immortal?\u201d in <em>Afterlife. <\/em>July 14, 2013. Accessed December 6, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.afterlife.co.nz\/2013\/theology\/body-and_soul\/matthew-1028-and-dualism-is-the-soul-immortal\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.afterlife.co.nz\/2013\/theology\/body-and_soul\/matthew-1028-and-dualism-is-the-soul-immortal\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\u00a0\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cWorms and Fire: The Rabbis or Isaiah?\u201d in <em>Rethinking Hell: Exploring\u00a0<\/em><em>Evangelical Conditionalism<\/em>. August 17, 2012. Accessed December 4, 2017.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2012\/08\/worms-and-fire-the-rabbis-or-isaiah\/\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2012\/08\/worms-and-fire-the-rabbis-or-isaiah\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Quarles, Charles, L. \u201cThe APO of 2 Thess. 1:9 and the Nature of Eternal Punishment,\u201d <em>WTJ<\/em> 59 [1997], 201-211.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Quient, Nicholas, R. \u201cDestruction from the Presence of the Lord: Paul\u2019s Intertextual Use of the LXX in 2 Thess. 1:9,\u201d (paper presented at the Rethinking Hell Conference in London, UK, 7-8, October 2016), 1-24.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cPaul and the Annihilation of Death,\u201d in <em>A Consuming Passion: Essays on\u00a0<\/em><em>Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge<\/em>, edited by Christopher M. Date and Ron Highfield, 90-111. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Reid, Daniel G. \u201c2 Thessalonians 1:9: \u2018Separated from\u2019 or \u2018Destruction from\u2019 the Presence of the Lord?\u201d (a paper presented at the ETS Pauline Studies Group, in Colorado Springs, CO, 16, November 2001), 1-18.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Silva, Mois\u0113s (ed). <em>New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis<\/em>, vol. 1-5. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2014.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Stackhouse, John. \u201cTerminal Punishment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016)<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Wright, N. T. <em>Matthew For Everyone: Part 1<\/em>. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\">Yarbrough, Robert W. \u201cJesus on Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents\u00a0<\/em><em>Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<hr align=\"left\" size=\"1\" width=\"33%\" \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"center\"><strong><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Footnotes<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<p dir=\"ltr\">\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_12277_1();\">&#x202F;<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_12277_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_12277_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_12277_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">References<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_1');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See also: OT Sheol (63x), NT Hades (11x) and Tartarus (1x). It is important to note that all men (wicked and righteous) go to Sheol and Hades upon death, but only the wicked are finally destroyed in Gehenna after the final Resurrection.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_2');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See Josh. 15:8; 18:16; 2 Kgs. 23:10; 2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Neh. 11:30; Jer. 7:31,32; 19:2,6; 32:35.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_3');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Kim Papaioannou, <em>The Geography of Hell in the Teaching of Jesus<\/em> (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2013), 3-4.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_4');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 4.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_5');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Edward Fudge, <em>The Fire That Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of Final Punishment, Third Edition<\/em>\u00a0(Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2011), 117.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_6');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Mois\u0113s Silva, \u201c\u03b3\u03ad\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1,\u201d in New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis (NIDNTTE), eds. Mois\u0113s Silva, vol.1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2014), 548.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_7');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 4.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_8');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">William I. Barclay, <em>The New Daily Study Bible: The Gospel of Mark<\/em> (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 268-269.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_9');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Unless otherwise noted, all biblical passages referenced are in the New International Version (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_10');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Lloyd R. Bailey, \u201cGehenna: The Topography of Hell,\u201d <em>Biblical Archeologist 49<\/em> (September, 1986): 189-190.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_11');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 190.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_12');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_13');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_14');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 5n8. Kim Papaioannou further suggests that \u201cTopheth (<span lang=\"he\">\u05ea\u05bc\u05b9\u05ab\u05e4\u05b6\u05ea<\/span>) etymologically probably means \u2018hearth,\u2019 \u2018fireplace\u2019 or fire altar.\u2019\u201d See Jeremiah 7:31.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_15');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 5.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_16');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 5-6.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_17');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Denny Burk, \u201cEternal Conscious Torment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 22-23.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_18');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>18<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 7.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_19');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>19<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">W. R. Domeris, \u201c<span lang=\"he\">\u05d4\u05b6\u05ab\u05e8\u05b6\u05d2<\/span>\u201d in <em>New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis<\/em> (NIDOTTE), eds. William A. VanGemeren, vol.1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997), 1056.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_20');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>20<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioanno, 8.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_21');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>21<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_22');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>22<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 8n22.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_23');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>23<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 9.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_24');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>24<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_25');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>25<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_26');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>26<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Daniel I. Block, \u201cThe Old Testament on Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 60-61.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_27');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>27<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Block, 60-61.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_28');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>28<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Domeris, 1056.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_29');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>29<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 12.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_30');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>30<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Joachim Jeremias, \u201c<span lang=\"gr\">\u03b3\u03ad\u03b5\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1<\/span>,\u201d in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (TDNT), eds. Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich, and Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol.\u00ad1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1964), 657-658.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_31');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>31<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 19.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_32');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>32<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 21. Kim lists the Rabbi\u2019s as: Akiba ben Joseph, Johanan ben Zakkai, and the School of Shammai.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_33');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>33<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid. For an excellent survey of later Jewish writings and their influence on the doctrine of final punishment, see Glenn Peoples, \u201cWorms and Fire: The Rabbis or Isaiah?\u201d in <em>Rethinking Hell: Exploring Evangelical Conditionalism<\/em>. August 17, 2012. Accessed December 4, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2012\/08\/worms-and-fire-the-rabbis-or-isaiah\/\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2012\/08\/worms-and-fire-the-rabbis-or-isaiah\/<\/span><\/a>. See also, David Instone-Brewer, \u201cEternal Punishment in First-Century Jewish Thought,\u201d in <em>A Consuming Passion: Essays on Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge<\/em>, eds. Christopher M. Date and Ron Highfield. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_34');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>34<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 22.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_35');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>35<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 21. Kim goes on to say, \u201cIt simply does not make sense to assume that the tradition developed from the simple battle-language of the Hebrew Scriptures to the otherworldly hell of bodies and\/or, more often, souls of the \u2018Apocrypha\u2019 and \u2018Pseudepigrapha,\u2019 all at once\u201d (p.22).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_36');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>36<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou suggests that \u201cthe first to revive <em>Ge-hinnom<\/em> out of its resting place was Jesus who used the term extensively in his preaching\u201d(25).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_37');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>37<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fudge, <em>The Fire that Consumes<\/em>, 286.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_38');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>38<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_39');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>39<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">My thanks to William Tanksley, Chris Date, Darryl Klassen and Peter Grice for comments on my original draft of this article, which has helped clarify my thinking on how to articulate what some might refer to as a \u201cescalating parallel.\u201d<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_40');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>40<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See Matthew 5:27-30. While Mark emphasizes the \u201ccutting off the hand\u201d (9:43), with no further explanation, Matthew goes further by saying, \u201c\u2026and throw it away\u201d (5:29,30).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_41\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_41');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>41<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 22.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_42\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_42');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>42<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fudge, <em>The Fire that Consumes<\/em>, 77.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_43\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_43');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>43<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fudge, 76.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_44\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_44');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>44<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 23.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_45\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_45');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>45<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Glenn Peoples, \u201cMatthew 10:28 and dualism: Is the soul Immortal?\u201d in <em>Afterlife. <\/em>July 14, 2013. Accessed December 6, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.afterlife.co.nz\/2013\/theology\/body-and_soul\/matthew-1028-and-dualism-is-the-soul-immortal\/\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.afterlife.co.nz\/2013\/theology\/body-and_soul\/matthew-1028-and-dualism-is-the-soul-immortal\/<\/span><\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_46\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_46');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>46<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 23.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_47\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_47');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>47<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid. Even though James mentions <em>Gehenna <\/em>only once, it is well recognized that his audience was Jewish.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_48\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_48');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>48<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 23.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_49\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_49');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>49<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">In an email conversation, Richard Middleton pointed out to me that \u201cdifferent contexts (and conceptual training, etc.) lead different people to use different ideas\/images, etc. to communicate the same basic idea.\u201d<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_50\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_50');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>50<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">See <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/11\/annihilation-in-2-thessalonians-19-part-1-destroyed-by-the-glory-of-his-manifest-presence\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/11\/annihilation-in-2-thessalonians-19-part-1-destroyed-by-the-glory-of-his-manifest-presence<\/span><\/a>; and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/12\/annihilation-in-2-thess-1-9-part-2-separation-or-obliteration\/\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.rethinkinghell.com\/2016\/12\/annihilation-in-2-thess-1-9-part-2-separation-or-obliteration\/<\/span><\/a>. See also Charles L. Quarles, \u201cThe <span lang=\"gr\">\u1f00\u03c0\u1f79<\/span> of 2 Thess. 1:9 and the Nature of Eternal Punishment,\u201d WTJ 59 [1997], 201-211.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_51\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_51');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>51<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nicholas Rudolph Quient, \u201cPaul and the Annihilation of Death,\u201d in <em>A Consuming Passion: Essays on Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge<\/em>, eds. Christopher M. Date and Ron Highfield (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015), 99.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_52\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_52');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>52<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For an excellent study on Paul\u2019s language of destruction as dependent upon the LXX, see Nicholas Rudolph Quient, \u201cDestruction from the Presence of the Lord: Paul\u2019s Intertextual Use of the LXX in 2 Thess. 1:9\u201d (paper presented at the Rethinking Hell Conference in London, UK, 7-8, October 2016), 1-24. See also, Daniel G. Reid, \u201c2 Thessalonians 1:9: \u2018Separated from\u2019 or \u2018Destruction from\u2019 the Presence of the Lord?\u201d (a paper presented at the ETS Pauline Studies Group, in Colorado Springs, CO, 16, November 2001), 1-18.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_53\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_53');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>53<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 24.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_54\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_54');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>54<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid.,<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_55\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_55');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>55<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Some examples: N. T. Wright, <em>Matthew For Everyone: Part 1<\/em> (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004), 211-12 (see also his commentaries: Part 2 of Matthew; Mark; Luke; 1<sup>st<\/sup> and 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Corinthians; The Early Christian Letters; and Revelation); Robert A. Morey, <em>Death and the Afterlife<\/em> (Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House, 1984), 87\u201388.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_56\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_56');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>56<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Larry Dixon, <em>The Other Side of the Good News: Confronting The Contemporary Challenges To Jesus\u2019 Teaching On Hell<\/em> (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1992), 122-123. See also, William V. Crockett, \u201cThe Metaphorical View,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, ed. William Crockett (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1996), 58.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_57\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_57');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>57<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Barclay, 268-269.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_58\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_58');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>58<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Block, 60-61.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_59\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_59');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>59<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">John Stackhouse, \u201cTerminal Punishment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 63. Other scholars who express hesitance with the garbage dump motif are: R. T. France, \u201c<em>The Gospel of Matthew<\/em>, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2007), 202; Robert W. Yarbrough, \u201cJesus on Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 79; Christopher W. Morgan, \u201cBiblical Theology: Three Pictures of Hell,\u201d in <em>Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment<\/em>, eds. Christopher W. Morgan &amp; Robert A. Peterson (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004), 146n17; and Denny Burk, \u201cEternal Conscious Torment,\u201d in <em>Four Views on Hell<\/em>, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> Edition, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 22-23.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_60\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_60');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>60<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Francis Chan and Preston M. Sprinkle, <em>Erasing Hell: What God Said about Eternity and the Things We Made Up<\/em> (Colorado Springs, CO: David C Cook, 2011), 59.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_61\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_61');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>61<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Ibid., 59.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_62\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_62');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>62<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">D. A. Carson, <em>Exegetical Fallacies, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> ed.<\/em> (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1996), 63-64.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_63\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_63');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>63<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Papaioannou, 6n13.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_64\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_64');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>64<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">G. R. Beasley-Murray,\u00a0<em>Jesus and the Kingdom of God\u00a0<\/em>(Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986), 376-77n.92.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_65\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_65');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>65<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">As cited in Bailey, \u201cGehenna: The Topography of Hell,\u201d 188.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_66\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_66');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>66<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Chan and Sprinkle, 60, italics mine.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_67\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_67');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>67<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Peter M. Head, &#8220;The Duration of Divine Judgment in the New Testament,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Eschatology in Bible &amp; Theology: Evangelical Essays at the Dawn of a New Millennium<\/em>, eds. Kent E. Brower and Mark W. Elliott (Downers Drove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1997), 223.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_68\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_68');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>68<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Bailey, 189. See also, \u201cThe Myth of the Burning Garbage Dump of Gehenna,\u201d <em>BiblePlaces.com blog: News and analysis related to biblical geography, history and archeology. <\/em>April 7, 2011. Accessed November 25, 2017. <a href=\"http:\/\/blog.bibleplaces.com\/2011\/04\/myth-of-burning-garbage-dump-of-gehenna.html\" rel=\"nofollow noopener\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/blog.bibleplaces.com\/2011\/04\/myth-of-burning-garbage-dump-of-gehenna.html<\/span><\/a>.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_69\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_69');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>69<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Chan and Sprinkle, 59.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_12277_1_70\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_12277_1_70');\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_plugin_link\" ><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#65514;<\/span>70<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Burk, 22-23.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_12277_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_12277_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_12277_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_12277_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_12277_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_12277_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_12277_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_12277_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_12277_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_12277_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_12277_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_12277_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_12277_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_12277_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Of the four words that are often translated \u201chell,\u201d Gehenna is the only term used in our Scriptures to describe the final fate of the wicked.1See also: OT Sheol (63x), NT Hades (11x) and Tartarus (1x). It is important to note that all men (wicked and righteous) go to Sheol and Hades upon death, but &hellip; <a href=\"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/2018\/01\/23\/gehenna-the-history-development-and-usage-of-a-common-image-for-hell\/\" class=\"more-link\">Continue reading <span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Gehenna: The History, Development and Usage of a Common Image for Hell<\/span><\/a><\/p>","protected":false},"author":5212,"featured_media":12949,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[5,19,1038],"tags":[175],"coauthors":[498],"class_list":["post-12277","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-biblical-exegesis","category-featured-content","category-gehenna","tag-gehenna"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12277","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5212"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=12277"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12277\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":24276,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12277\/revisions\/24276"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/12949"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=12277"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=12277"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=12277"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/rethinkinghell.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/coauthors?post=12277"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}